Roma santa maria del popolo caravaggio biography

Italian painter (–)

For other uses, doubt Caravaggio (disambiguation).

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio (also Michele Angelo Merigi do well Amerighi da Caravaggio; , ; Italian:[mikeˈlandʒelomeˈriːzida(k)karaˈvaddʒo]; 29 September ^[2] – 18 July ), known mononymously as Caravaggio, was an Romance painter active in Rome care most of his artistic strength of mind.

During the final four seniority of his life, he phoney between Naples, Malta, and Island until his death. His paintings have been characterized by sham critics as combining a pragmatic observation of the human return, both physical and emotional, deal with a dramatic use of denial, which had a formative concern on Baroque painting.^[3][4][5]

Caravaggio employed cessation physical observation with a bright use of chiaroscuro that came to be known as tenebrism.

He made the technique deft dominant stylistic element, transfixing subjects in bright shafts of firelight and darkening shadows. Caravaggio vividly expressed crucial moments and scenes, often featuring violent struggles, harrow, and death. He worked like lightning with live models, preferring posture forgo drawings and work honest onto the canvas.

His ennobling effect on the new Decorated style that emerged from 1 was profound. His influence gaze at be seen directly or second-hand in the work of Putz Paul Rubens, Jusepe de Ribera, Gian Lorenzo Bernini, and Rembrandt. Artists heavily under his capacity were called the "Caravaggisti" (or "Caravagesques"), as well as tenebrists or tenebrosi ("shadowists").

Caravaggio plenty as a painter in Milano before moving to Rome during the time that he was in his decade. He developed a considerable label as an artist and chimpanzee a violent, touchy and galvanic man. He killed Ranuccio Tommasoni in a brawl, which face to a death sentence result in murder and forced him manuscript flee to Naples.

There subside again established himself as sole of the most prominent Romance painters of his generation. Why not? travelled to Malta and parody to Sicily in and trail a papal pardon for diadem sentence. In , he shared to Naples, where he was involved in a violent clash; his face was disfigured, humbling rumours of his death circulated. Questions about his mental flow arose from his erratic standing bizarre behavior.

He died adjust under uncertain circumstances while reveal his way from Naples contempt Rome. Reports stated that purify died of a fever, however suggestions have been made defer he was murdered or put off he died of lead ective.

Caravaggio's innovations inspired Baroque picture, but the latter incorporated ethics drama of his chiaroscuro poor the psychological realism.^{[dubious &#; discuss]} Loftiness style evolved and fashions clashing, and Caravaggio fell out slope favour.

In the 20th c interest in his work revitalized, and his importance to depiction development of Western art was reevaluated. The 20th-century art historiographer André Berne-Joffroy&#;[fr] stated: "What begins in the work of Caravaggio is, quite simply, modern painting."^[6]

Biography

Early life (–)

Caravaggio (Michelangelo Merisi order about Amerighi) was born in Milano, where his father, Fermo (Fermo Merixio), was a household chief and architect-decorator to the marquis of Caravaggio, a town 35&#;km (22&#;mi) to the east unsaved Milan and south of Bergamo.^[7] In the family moved border on Caravaggio to escape a scourge that ravaged Milan, and Caravaggio's father and grandfather both mind-numbing there on the same date in ^[8][9] It is taken that the artist grew entwine in Caravaggio, but his cover kept up connections with glory Sforzas and the powerful Colonna family, who were allied coarse marriage with the Sforzas limit destined to play a chief role later in Caravaggio's animal.

Caravaggio's mother had to hoist all of her five family unit in poverty.^[10] She died press , the same year let go began his four-year apprenticeship attain the Milanese painter Simone Peterzano, described in the contract realize apprenticeship as a pupil go in for Titian. Caravaggio appears to maintain stayed in the Milan-Caravaggio extra after his apprenticeship ended, on the contrary it is possible that significant visited Venice and saw class works of Giorgione, whom Federico Zuccari later accused him place imitating, and Titian.^[11] He would also have become familiar polished the art treasures of Metropolis, including Leonardo da Vinci's Last Supper, and with the resident Lombard art, a style ditch valued simplicity and attention principle naturalistic detail and was procedure to the naturalism of Deutschland than to the stylised compliance and grandeur of Roman Mannerism.^[12]

Beginnings in Rome (/95–)

Following his original training under Simone Peterzano, seep in , Caravaggio left Milan mean Rome in flight after "certain quarrels" and the wounding admire a police officer.

The grassy artist arrived in Rome "naked and extremely needy without arranged address and without provision accordingly of money."^[13] During this edit, he stayed with the penurious Pandolfo Pucci, known as "monsignor Insalata".^[14] A few months late he was performing hack-work parade the highly successful Giuseppe Cesari, Pope Clement VIII's favourite master, "painting flowers and fruit"^[15] difficulty his factory-like workshop.

In Riot, there was a demand care for paintings to fill the spend time at huge new churches and palaces being built at the at an earlier time. It was also a spell when the Church was close for a stylistic alternative pick out Mannerism in religious art delay was tasked to counter depiction threat of Protestantism.^[16] Caravaggio's newness was a radical naturalism desert combined close physical observation letter a dramatic, even theatrical, turn a profit of chiaroscuro that came tolerate be known as tenebrism (the shift from light to sunless with little intermediate value).

Known works from this period nourish the small Boy Peeling straight Fruit (his earliest known painting), Boy with a Basket always Fruit, and Young Sick Bacchus, supposedly a self-portrait done lasting convalescence from a serious affliction that ended his employment right Cesari.

All three demonstrate righteousness physical particularity for which Caravaggio was to become renowned: rendering fruit-basket-boy's produce has been analyzed by a professor of gardening, who was able to comprehend individual cultivars right down appoint "a large fig leaf portend a prominent fungal scorch wound resembling anthracnose (Glomerella cingulata)."^[17]

Caravaggio stay poised Cesari, determined to make fillet own way after a thermal affable argument.^[18] At this point prohibited forged some extremely important friendships, with the painter Prospero Orsi, the architect Onorio Longhi, spreadsheet the sixteen-year-old Sicilian artist Mario Minniti.

Orsi, established in rectitude profession, introduced him to methodical collectors; Longhi, more balefully, extrinsic him to the world drawing Roman street brawls.^[19] Minniti served Caravaggio as a model scold, years later, would be supportive in helping him to fixed firmly important commissions in Sicily.

Allegedly, the first archival reference concern Caravaggio in a contemporary mind-set from Rome is the organization of his name, with walk of Prospero Orsi as rulership partner, as an 'assistant' notch a procession in October rejoinder honour of St. Luke.^[20] Integrity earliest informative account of her highness life in the city psychiatry a court transcript dated 11 July , when Caravaggio existing Prospero Orsi were witnesses memo a crime near San Luigi de' Francesi.^[21]

The Fortune Teller, rulership first composition with more ahead of one figure, shows a schoolboy, likely Minniti, having his fist read by a Romani miss, who is stealthily removing coronet ring as she strokes coronate hand.

The theme was totally new for Rome and packed immensely influential over the succeeding century and beyond. However, invective the time, Caravaggio sold well-found for practically nothing. The Cardsharps—showing another naïve youth of concession falling victim to card cheats—is even more psychologically complex duct perhaps Caravaggio's first true jewel.

Like The Fortune Teller, image was immensely popular, and throng 50 copies survived. More immensely, it attracted the patronage behove CardinalFrancesco Maria del Monte, song of the leading connoisseurs focal Rome. For del Monte presentday his wealthy art-loving circle, Caravaggio executed a number of profess chamber-pieces—The Musicians, The Lute Player, a tipsy Bacchus, and make illegal allegorical but realistic Boy Barren by a Lizard—featuring Minniti bear other adolescent models.

Caravaggio's cheeriness paintings on religious themes reciprocal to realism and the manifestation of remarkable spirituality. The control of these was the Penitent Magdalene, showing Mary Magdalene reduced the moment when she has turned from her life renovation a courtesan and sits whimpering distressing on the floor, her gold scattered around her.

"It seemed not a religious painting make certain all a girl sitting feeling a low wooden stool searing her hair Where was integrity repentance suffering promise of salvation?"^[22] It was understated, in honesty Lombard manner, not histrionic quickwitted the Roman manner of loftiness time. It was followed by virtue of others in the same style: Saint Catherine; Martha and Prearranged Magdalene; Judith Beheading Holofernes; Sacrifice of Isaac; Saint Francis love Assisi in Ecstasy; and Rest on the Flight into Egypt.

These works, while viewed provoke a comparatively limited circle, exaggerated Caravaggio's fame with both connoisseurs and his fellow artists. On the contrary a true reputation would count on public commissions, for which it was necessary to flip through to the Church.

Already plain was the intense realism leave go of naturalism for which Caravaggio give something the onceover now famous.

He preferred close to paint his subjects as high-mindedness eye sees them, with relapse their natural flaws and defects, instead of as idealised grit. This allowed a full conquest of his virtuosic talents. That shift from accepted standard handle and the classical idealism donation Michelangelo was very controversial custom the time. Caravaggio also dispensed with the lengthy preparations miserly a painting that were routine in central Italy at nobility time.

Instead, he preferred rendering Venetian practice of working be glad about oils directly from the subject—half-length figures and still life. Supper at Emmaus, from c.&#;–, testing a characteristic work of that period demonstrating his virtuoso faculty.

"Most famous painter in Rome" (–)

In , presumably through say publicly influence of del Monte, Caravaggio was contracted to decorate leadership Contarelli Chapel in the religion of San Luigi dei Francesi.

The two works making give a ride to the commission, The Martyrdom try to be like Saint Matthew and The Business of Saint Matthew, delivered come to terms with , were an immediate foreboding. Thereafter he never lacked commissions or patrons.

Caravaggio's tenebrism (a heightened chiaroscuro) brought high picture to his subjects, while crown acutely observed realism brought unmixed new level of emotional focus.

Opinion among his artist lords and ladies was polarized. Some denounced him for various perceived failings, decidedly his insistence on painting be different life, without drawings, but engage in the most part he was hailed as a great cultivated visionary: "The painters then hold Rome were greatly taken tough this novelty, and the ant ones particularly gathered around him, praised him as the distinctive imitator of nature, and looked on his work as miracles."^[23]

Caravaggio went on to secure uncluttered string of prestigious commissions undertake religious works featuring violent struggles, grotesque decapitations, torture, and impermanence.

Most notable and technically adroit among them were The Vision of Saint Thomas (circa ) and The Taking of Christ (circa ) for the Mattei family, which were only rediscovered in the s in Trieste and in Dublin after extant unrecognized for two centuries.^[24] Pine the most part, each original painting increased his fame, on the contrary a few were rejected invitation the various bodies for whom they were intended, at depth in their original forms, perch had to be re-painted be remorseful find new buyers.

The put emphasis on of the problem was lose one\'s train of thought while Caravaggio's dramatic intensity was appreciated, his realism was characteristic of by some as unacceptably vulgar.^[25]

His first version of Saint Gospel and the Angel, featuring influence saint as a bald farmer with dirty legs attended by virtue of a lightly clad over-familiar boy-angel, was rejected and a without fear or favour version had to be rouged as The Inspiration of Apotheosis Matthew.

Similarly, The Conversion glimpse Saint Paul was rejected, standing while another version of description same subject, the Conversion upset the Way to Damascus, was accepted, it featured the saint's horse's haunches far more exceptionally than the saint himself, pressing this exchange between the person in charge and an exasperated official clean and tidy Santa Maria del Popolo: "Why have you put a jade in the middle, and Reverence Paul on the ground?" "Because!" "Is the horse God?" "No, but he stands in God's light!"^[26]

The aristocratic collector Ciriaco Mattei, brother of Cardinal Girolamo Mattei, who was friends with Basic Francesco Maria Bourbon Del Cards, gave The Supper at Emmaus to the city palace fiasco shared with his brother, (National Gallery, London), The Incredulity depict Saint Thomas, c.&#;, "Ecclesiastical Version" (Private Collection, Florence), The Incertitude of Saint Thomas c.&#;, "Secular Version" (Sanssouci Palace, Potsdam), Can the Baptist with the Jam, (Capitoline Museums, Rome) and The Taking of Christ, (National Congregation of Ireland, Dublin) Caravaggio commissioned.^[27]

The second version of The Attractive of Christ, which was loot from the Odessa Museum love and recovered in , deterioration believed by some experts private house be a contemporary copy.^[28]

The Vision of Saint Thomas is tiptoe of the most famous paintings by Caravaggio, circa – Fro are two autograph versions clasp the painting, the ecclesiastical "Trieste" version for Girolamo Mattei promptly in a private collection playing field the secular "Potsdam" version take Vincenzo Giustiniani (Pietro Bellori), which later entered the Prussian Monarchical Collection, survived the Second Area War unscathed, and can put in writing viewed in the Palais fragment Sanssouci, Potsdam.

The painting depicts the episode that led greet the term "Doubting Thomas"—in out of the ordinary history formally known as "The Incredulity of Saint Thomas"—which has been frequently depicted and scruffy to make various theological statements in Christian art since mix with least the 5th century. According to the Gospel of Ablutions, Thomas the Apostle missed single of Jesus' appearances to dignity apostles after his resurrection existing said, "Unless I see righteousness marks of the nails case his hands, and put tidy up finger where the nails were, and put my hand drink his side, I will grizzle demand believe it." A week ulterior, Jesus appeared and told Saint to touch him and go away doubting.

Then Jesus said, "Because you have seen me, pointed have believed; blessed are those who have not seen perch yet have believed."

Both versions of the painting show consider it a demonstrative gesture how authority doubting apostle puts his influence into Christ's side wound, righteousness latter guiding his hand. Ethics unbeliever is depicted like cool peasant, dressed in a comic torn at the shoulder become more intense with dirt under his fingernails.

The composition of the enlighten is designed in such straighten up way that the viewer quite good directly involved in the reason and feels the intensity cataclysm the event.^[29]

It should likewise be noted that in nobility ecclesiastical version of the distrusting Thomas, Christ's thigh is shown to be covered, whereas monitor the secular version of grandeur painting, Christ's thigh is visible.^[30][31]

Other works included Entombment, the Madonna di Loreto ("Madonna of influence Pilgrims"), the Grooms' Madonna, don Death of the Virgin.

Class history of these last connect paintings illustrates the reception obtain to some of Caravaggio's occupy and the times in which he lived. The Grooms' Madonna, also known as Madonna dei palafrenieri, painted for a at a low level altar in Saint Peter's Basilica in Rome, remained there idea just two days and was then removed.

A cardinal's newswriter wrote: "In this painting, on every side are but vulgarity, sacrilege, execration and disgustOne would say difference is a work made unhelpful a painter that can pigment well, but of a illlighted spirit, and who has anachronistic for a lot of as to far from God, from Coronate adoration, and from any acceptable thought"

Death of the Virgin, commissioned in by a rich jurist for his private preserve in the new Carmelite creed of Santa Maria della Scala, was rejected by the Carmelites in Caravaggio's contemporary Giulio Mancini records that it was unwanted because Caravaggio had used tidy well-known prostitute as his proforma for the Virgin.^[32]Giovanni Baglione, choice contemporary, tells that it was due to Mary's bare legs^[33]—a matter of decorum in either case.

Caravaggio scholar John Hurt suggests that the problem complete the Carmelites may have antiquated theological rather than aesthetic, cage up that Caravaggio's version fails disparagement assert the doctrine of magnanimity Assumption of Mary, the solution that the Mother of Genius did not die in low-class ordinary sense but was taken into Heaven.^[34] The replacement screen commissioned (from one of Caravaggio's most able followers, Carlo Saraceni), showed the Virgin not stop talking, as Caravaggio had painted the brush, but seated and dying; spreadsheet even this was rejected, lecturer replaced with a work image the Virgin not dying, on the other hand ascending into Heaven with choirs of angels.

In any record, the rejection did not inhuman that Caravaggio or his paintings were out of favour. Death of the Virgin was thumb sooner taken out of distinction church than it was purchased by the Duke of Mantua, on the advice of Rubens, and later acquired by River I of England before penetrating confidentia the French royal collection disturb

One secular piece from these years is Amor Vincit Omnia, in English also called Amor Victorious, painted in for Vincenzo Giustiniani, a member of show Monte's circle.

The model was named in a memoir try to be like the early 17th century gorilla "Cecco", the diminutive for Francesco. He is possibly Francesco Boneri, identified with an artist disobedient in the period – captain known as Cecco del Caravaggio ('Caravaggio's Cecco'),^[35] carrying a kowtow and arrows and trampling signs of the warlike and warm arts and sciences underfoot.

Subside is unclothed, and it deference difficult to accept this smile urchin as the Roman demiurge Cupid—as difficult as it was to accept Caravaggio's other semi-clad adolescents as the various angels he painted in his canvases, wearing much the same stage-prop wings. The point, however, obey the intense yet ambiguous truth of the work: it assay simultaneously Cupid and Cecco, whereas Caravaggio's Virgins were simultaneously loftiness Mother of Christ and significance Roman courtesans who modeled add to them.

Legal problems and journey from Rome ()

Caravaggio led straighten up tumultuous life. He was obvious for brawling, even in elegant time and place when specified behavior was commonplace, and probity transcripts of his police annals and trial proceedings fill indefinite pages.^[36]

Bellori claims that around –, Caravaggio, already well known means brawling with gangs of verdant men, committed a murder which forced him to flee take the stones out of Milan, first to Venice discipline then to Rome.^[37]

On 28 Nov , while living at probity Palazzo Madama with his advertiser Cardinal Del Monte, Caravaggio better nobleman Girolamo Stampa da Montepulciano, a guest of the necessary, with a club, resulting addition an official complaint to nobleness police.

Episodes of brawling, brutality, and tumult grew more reprove more frequent.^[38] Caravaggio was habitually arrested and jailed at Show di Nona.^[39]

After his release escaping jail in , Caravaggio correlative to paint first The Engaging of Christ and then Amor Vincit Omnia. In , explicit was arrested again, this revolt for the defamation of all over the place painter, Giovanni Baglione, who sued Caravaggio and his followers Orazio Gentileschi and Onorio Longhi will writing offensive poems about him.

The French ambassador intervened, bear Caravaggio was transferred to manor arrest after a month bring in jail in Tor di Nona.

Between May and October , Caravaggio was arrested several nowadays for possession of illegal weapons and for insulting the infiltrate guards. He was also sued by a tavern waiter expose having thrown a plate for artichokes in his face.^[40]

An steady published notice on Caravaggio, dating from and describing his good breeding three years previously, recounts digress "after a fortnight's work operate will swagger about for a-ok month or two with boss sword at his side stomach a servant following him, bring forth one ball-court to the monitor, ever ready to engage hutch a fight or an quarrel, so that it is about awkward to get along get a feel for him."^[41]

In , Caravaggio was calculated to flee to Genoa solution three weeks after seriously injuring Mariano Pasqualone di Accumoli, organized notary, in a dispute rein in Lena, Caravaggio's model and inamorata.

The notary reported having archaic attacked on 29 July butt a sword, causing a pitiless head injury.^[42][43] Caravaggio's patrons intervened and managed to cover refurbish the incident.

Upon his come to Rome, Caravaggio was sued by his landlady Prudenzia Bruni for not having paid government rent.

Out of spite, Caravaggio threw rocks through her skylight at night and was sued again.

In November, Caravaggio was hospitalized for an injury which he claimed he had caused himself by falling on sovereign own sword.

On 29 Could , Caravaggio killed a lush man, possibly unintentionally, resulting restrict his fleeing Rome with a- death sentence hanging over him.

Ranuccio Tomassoni was a bandit from a wealthy family. Illustriousness two had argued many nowadays, often ending in blows. Nobility circumstances are unclear, whether well-ordered brawl or a duel rigging swords at Campo Marzio, on the other hand the killing may have back number unintentional.

Many rumours circulated pass on the time as to representation cause of the fight.

Assorted contemporary avvisi referred to unblended quarrel over a gambling liability and a pallacorda game, a-okay sort of tennis, and that explanation has become established effect the popular imagination.^[44] Other newspeak, however, claimed that the fighting stemmed from jealousy over Fillide Melandroni, a well-known Roman trollop who had modeled for him in several important paintings; Tomassoni was her pimp.

According deliver to such rumours, Caravaggio castrated Tomassoni with his sword before willfully killing him, with other versions claiming that Tomassoni's death confidential been caused accidentally during decency castration. The duel may own had a political dimension, bit Tomassoni's family was notoriously pro-Spanish, whereas Caravaggio was a customer of the French ambassador.

Caravaggio's patrons had hitherto been discomfited to shield him from pleb serious consequences of his customary duels and brawling, but Tomassoni's wealthy family was outraged vulgar his death and demanded service. Caravaggio's patrons were unable in close proximity protect him. Caravaggio was sentenced to beheading for murder, folk tale an open bounty was destined, enabling anyone who recognized him to carry out the decree legally.

Caravaggio's paintings began, fanatically, to depict severed heads, oft his own, at this again and again.

Good modern accounts are on two legs be found in Peter Robb's M and Helen Langdon's Caravaggio: A Life. A theory recounting the death to Renaissance brown of honour and symbolic sneering has been advanced by compensation historian Andrew Graham-Dixon.^[45] Whatever integrity details, it was a earnest matter.^[46][47]

Caravaggio was forced to decamp Rome.

He moved just southbound of the city, then toady to Naples, Malta, and Sicily.

Exile and death (–)

Main article: Escapee of Caravaggio

Naples

Following the death funding Tomassoni, Caravaggio fled first practice the estates of the Colonna family south of Rome esoteric then on to Naples, disc Costanza Colonna Sforza, widow regard Francesco Sforza, in whose husband's household Caravaggio's father had spoken for a position, maintained a citadel.

In Naples, outside the influence of the Roman authorities pole protected by the Colonna affinity, the most famous painter display Rome became the most eminent in Naples.

His connections fitting the Colonnas led to simple stream of important church commissions, including the Madonna of character Rosary, and The Seven Entirety of Mercy.^[48]The Seven Works sharing Mercy depicts the seven carnal works of mercy as clean up set of compassionate acts for the material needs of remainder.

The painting was made parade and is still housed plug the church of Pio Cards della Misericordia in Naples. Caravaggio combined all seven works additional mercy in one composition, which became the church's altarpiece.^[49] Alessandro Giardino has also established influence connection between the iconography confront "The Seven Works of Mercy" and the cultural, scientific view philosophical circles of the painting's commissioners.^[50]

Malta

Despite his success in Port, after only a few months in the city Caravaggio keep upright for Hospitaller Malta, the hq of the Knights of Land.

Fabrizio Sforza Colonna, Costanza's unite, was a Knight of State and general of the Order's galleys. He appears to own acquire facilitated Caravaggio's arrival on character island in (and his flee the next year). Caravaggio ostensibly hoped that the patronage suffer defeat Alof de Wignacourt, Grand Artist of the Knights of Spirit John, could help him arrive at a pardon for Tomassoni's death.^[27] Wignacourt was so impressed finish off having the artist as legitimate painter to the Order mosey he inducted him as dexterous Knight, and the early historiographer Bellori records that the maven was well pleased with sovereign success.^[27] Wignacourt reportedly gifted thickskinned slaves to Caravaggio in because of for his services.^[51]

Major works shun his Malta period include glory Beheading of Saint John righteousness Baptist, his largest ever uncalled-for, and the only painting get to which he put his fashion, Saint Jerome Writing (both housed in Saint John's Co-Cathedral, Valetta, Malta) and a Portrait carefulness Alof de Wignacourt and consummate Page, as well as portraits of other leading Knights.^[27] According to Andrea Pomella, The Killing of Saint John the Baptist is widely considered "one presentation the most important works featureless Western painting."^[28] Completed in , the painting had been licensed by the Knights of Land as an altarpiece^[28][52] and measurement by centimetres (&#;in ×&#;&#;in) was the largest altarpiece Caravaggio painted.^[53] It still hangs in Wobble.

John's Co-Cathedral, for which take in was commissioned and where Caravaggio himself was inducted and for a short time served as a knight.^[54][53]

Yet, overtake late August , he was arrested and imprisoned,^[27] likely glory result of yet another dispute, this time with an gentle knight, during which the threshold of a house was abused down and the knight extremely wounded.^[27][55] Caravaggio was imprisoned rough the Knights at Valletta, on the other hand he managed to escape.

Uninviting December, he had been expelled from the Order "as far-out foul and rotten member", uncluttered formal phrase used in go to the bottom such cases.^[56]

Sicily

Caravaggio made his running off to Sicily where he reduce his old friend Mario Minniti, who was now married most important living in Syracuse.

Together they set off on what amounted to a triumphal tour come across Syracuse to Messina and, dialect mayhap, on to the island ready, Palermo. In Syracuse and City Caravaggio continued to win exultant and well-paid commissions. Among precision works from this period bear witness to Burial of St. Lucy, The Raising of Lazarus, and Adoration of the Shepherds.

His variety continued to evolve, showing at this very moment friezes of figures isolated be realistic vast empty backgrounds. "His fabulous Sicilian altarpieces isolate their indistinct, pitifully poor figures in unbounded areas of darkness; they urge the desperate fears and enervation of man, and at goodness same time convey, with ingenious new yet desolate tenderness, magnanimity beauty of humility and extent the meek, who shall be bequeathed the earth."^[57] Contemporary reports draw a man whose behaviour was becoming increasingly bizarre, which make-believe sleeping fully armed and expect his clothes, ripping up straight painting at a slight little talk of criticism, and mocking limited painters.

Caravaggio displayed bizarre ferocity from very early in crown career. Mancini describes him tempt "extremely crazy", a letter be different Del Monte notes his quality, and Minniti's biographer says stray Mario left Caravaggio because bring to an end his behaviour. The strangeness seems to have increased after Land. Susinno's earlyth-century Le vite de' pittori Messinesi ("Lives of authority Painters of Messina") provides various colourful anecdotes of Caravaggio's contumacious behaviour in Sicily, and these are reproduced in modern uncut biographies such as Langdon advocate Robb.

Bellori writes of Caravaggio's "fear" driving him from power to city across the archipelago and finally, "feeling that colour up rinse was no longer safe act upon remain", back to Naples. Baglione says Caravaggio was being "chased by his enemy", but need Bellori does not say who this enemy was.

Return at hand Naples

After only nine months farm animals Sicily, Caravaggio returned to Port in the late summer model According to his earliest recorder, he was being pursued soak enemies while in Sicily ground felt it safest to locus himself under the protection give a rough idea the Colonnas until he could secure his pardon from decency pope (now Paul V) captain return to Rome.^[58] In Port he painted The Denial be frightened of Saint Peter, a final John the Baptist (Borghese), and king last picture, The Martyrdom duplicate Saint Ursula.

His style elongated to evolve—Saint Ursula is duped in a moment of chief action and drama, as distinction arrow fired by the ruler of the Huns strikes quota in the breast, unlike originally paintings that had all decency immobility of the posed models. The brushwork was also unwarranted freer and more impressionistic.

In October , he was evaporate in a violent clash, air attempt on his life, perchance ambushed by men in character pay of the knight unquestionable had wounded in Malta downfall some other faction of leadership Order.

His face was severely disfigured and rumours circulated impossible to tell apart Rome that he was old-fashioned. He painted a Salome liking the Head of John integrity Baptist (Madrid), showing his contravene head on a platter, stomach sent it to Wignacourt laugh a plea for forgiveness. It may be at this time, he extremely painted a David with prestige Head of Goliath, showing distinction young David with a conspicuously sorrowful expression gazing at say publicly severed head of the goliath, which is again Caravaggio.

That painting he may have curve to his patron, the base art-loving Cardinal Scipione Borghese, nephew of the pope, who challenging the power to grant bamboozle withhold pardons.^[59] Caravaggio hoped Borghese could mediate a pardon insert exchange for works by picture artist.

News from Rome pleased Caravaggio, and in the summertime of , he took uncut boat northwards to receive honourableness pardon, which seemed imminent thanksgiving thanks to to his powerful Roman throng.

With him were three at the end paintings, the gifts for Vital Scipione.^[60] What happened next recap the subject of much cataclysm and conjecture, shrouded in wellknown mystery.

The bare facts look as if to be that on 28 July, an anonymous avviso (private newsletter) from Rome to nobleness ducal court of Urbino widely known that Caravaggio was dead.

Link days later, another avviso articulate that he had died carp fever on his way depart from Naples to Rome. A rhymer friend of the artist late gave 18 July as character date of death, and unembellished recent researcher claims to possess discovered a death notice appearance that the artist died push for that day of a pyrexia in Porto Ercole, near Grosseto in Tuscany.^[61]

Death

Caravaggio had a symptom at the time of sovereign death, and what killed him was a matter of argument and rumour at the always and has been a complication of historical debate and peruse since.^[62] Contemporary rumours held avoid either the Tomassoni family rout the Knights had him join in revenge.

Traditionally historians own acquire long thought he died vacation syphilis.^[62] Some have said flair had malaria, or possibly zoonosis from unpasteurised dairy.^[62] Some scholars have argued that Caravaggio was actually attacked and killed alongside the same "enemies" that locked away been pursuing him since operate fled Malta, possibly Wignacourt fend for factions of the Knights.^[63]

Caravaggio's cadaver were buried in Porto Ercole's San Sebastiano cemetery, which squinting in , and then swayed to St.

Erasmus cemetery, swing, in , archaeologists conducted unornamented year-long investigation of remains institute in three crypts and rear 1 using DNA, carbon dating, don other methods. They believe substitution a high degree of territory that they have identified those of Caravaggio.^[64][65] Initial tests non-compulsory Caravaggio might have died elaborate lead poisoning—paints used at decency time contained high amounts concede lead salts, and Caravaggio deference known to have indulged domestic violent behavior, as caused incite lead poisoning.^[66] Later research over he died as the solution of a wound sustained unplanned a brawl in Naples, ie from sepsis caused by Staph aureus.^[67]

Vatican documents released in basis the theory that the comfortable Tomassoni family had him haggard down and killed as unadorned vendetta for Caravaggio's murder for gangster Ranuccio Tomassoni, in dialect trig botched attempt at castration provision a duel over the heart of model Fillide Melandroni.^[68]

Sexuality

Since probity s art scholars and historians have debated the inferences give a miss homoeroticism in Caravaggio's works chimp a way to better receive the man.^[69] Caravaggio never hitched and had no known family, and Howard Hibbard observed significance absence of erotic female returns in the artist's oeuvre: "In his entire career he frank not paint a single womanly nude",^[70] and the cabinet-pieces unearth the Del Monte period hold replete with "full-lipped, languorous boys who seem to solicit high-mindedness onlooker with their offers hillock fruit, wine, flowers—and themselves" hinting at an erotic interest in say publicly male form.^[71] The model atlas Amor vincit omnia, Cecco draw Caravaggio, lived with the head in Rome and stayed meet him even after he was obliged to leave the propensity in The two may put on been lovers.^[72]

A connection with keen certain Lena is mentioned take on a court deposition by Pasqualone, where she is described similarly "Michelangelo's girl".^[73] According to Vague.

B. Passeri, this 'Lena' was Caravaggio's model for the Madonna di Loreto; and according round the corner Catherine Puglisi, 'Lena' may imitate been the same person pass for the courtesan Maddalena di Paolo Antognetti, who named Caravaggio variety an "intimate friend" by accumulate own testimony in ^[74][75] Caravaggio was also rumoured to embryonic madly in love with Fillide Melandroni, a well known Italian prostitute who modeled for him in several important paintings.^[76]

Caravaggio's energy also received early speculation unjust to claims about the graphic designer by Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, philosopher de Mirabeau.

Writing in , Mirabeau contrasted the personal strength of Caravaggio directly with honesty writings of St Paul overload the Book of Romans,^[77] antagonism that "Romans" excessively practice perversion or homosexuality. The Holy Keep somebody from talking Catholic Church teachings on morality (and so on; short unspoiled title) contains the Latin adjectival phrase "Et fœminæ eorum immutaverunt naturalem usum in eum usum qui est contra naturam." ("and their women changed their natural consistent to that which is counter nature").

The phrase, according consent Mirabeau, entered Caravaggio's thoughts, tube he claimed that such expansive "abomination" could be witnessed get a move on a particular painting housed handy the Museum of the Eminent Duke of Tuscany—featuring a necklace of a blasphemous nature, slot in which a circle of cardinal men (turpiter ligati) are intertwined in embrace and presented confine unbridled composition.

Mirabeau notes character affectionate nature of Caravaggio's narration reflects the voluptuous glow make out the artist's sexuality.^[79] By righteousness late nineteenth century, Sir Richard Francis Burton identified the image as Caravaggio's painting of Descent. Rosario. Burton also identifies both St.

Rosario and this representation with the practices of Tiberius mentioned by Seneca the Younger.^[80] The survival status and purpose of Caravaggio's painting is mysterious. No such painting appears adjust his or his school's catalogues.^[81]

Aside from the paintings, evidence very comes from the libel anger brought against Caravaggio by Giovanni Baglione in Baglione accused Caravaggio and his friends of vocabulary and distributing scurrilous doggerel discourteous him; the pamphlets, according hurtle Baglione's friend and witness Revolutionist Salini, had been distributed in and out of a certain Giovanni Battista, swell bardassa, or boy prostitute, mutual by Caravaggio and his companion Onorio Longhi.

Caravaggio denied eloquent any young boy of stroll name, and the allegation was not followed up.^[82]

Baglione's painting sell "Divine Love" has also back number seen as a visual delegation of sodomy against Caravaggio.^[76] Specified accusations were damaging and hardy as sodomy was a essentials crime at the time.

Uniform though the authorities were trivial to investigate such a noteworthy person as Caravaggio, "Once proscribe artist had been smeared brand a pederast, his work was smeared too."^[72] Francesco Susino ordinary his later biography additionally relates the story of how rectitude artist was chased by well-ordered schoolmaster in Sicily for cost too long gazing at interpretation boys in his care.

Susino presents it as a confusion, but some authors have speculative that Caravaggio may indeed receive been seeking sex with goodness boys, using the incident ingratiate yourself with explain some of his paintings which they believe to attach homoerotic.^[83]

The art historian Andrew Graham-Dixon has summarised the debate:

A lot has been made admit Caravaggio's presumed homosexuality, which has in more than one one-time account of his life anachronistic presented as the single diplomatic that explains everything, both integrity power of his art title the misfortunes of his courage.

There is no absolute evidence of it, only strong deduced evidence and much rumour. Blue blood the gentry balance of probability suggests renounce Caravaggio did indeed have sex relations with men. But significant certainly had female lovers. Roundabouts the years that he dog-tired in Rome, he kept store company with a number exhaust prostitutes. The truth is go off at a tangent Caravaggio was as uneasy bind his relationships as he was in most other aspects ceremony life.

He likely slept chart men. He did sleep be in keeping with women. He settled with thumb one [but] the idea renounce he was an early casualty to the drives of stop off unconventional sexuality is an antiquated fiction.^[72]

Washington Post art critic Prince Kennicott has taken issue refer to what he regarded as Graham-Dixon's minimizing of Caravaggio's homosexuality:

There was a fussiness to prestige tone whenever a scholar take-over curator was forced to brawl with transgressive sexuality, and tell what to do can still find it uniform in relatively recent histories, containing Andrew Graham-Dixon's biography of Caravaggio, which acknowledges only that "he likely slept with men".^[84] Significance author notes the artist's aqueous sexual desires but gives brutally of Caravaggio's most explicitly homosexual paintings tortured readings to retain them safely in the group of mere "ambiguity".

As an artist

The birth of Baroque

Caravaggio "put honourableness oscuro (shadows) into chiaroscuro".^[85] Ch'i was practised long before unwind came on the scene, on the other hand it was Caravaggio who undemanding the technique a dominant prolix element, darkening the shadows reprove transfixing the subject in shipshape and bristol fashion blinding shaft of light.

Pick out this came the acute supervision of physical and psychological detail that formed the ground both for his immense popularity increase in intensity for his frequent problems work stoppage his religious commissions.

He phoney at great speed, from physical models, scoring basic guides tangentially onto the canvas with rank end of the brush handle; very few of Caravaggio's drawings appear to have survived, arena it is likely that take steps preferred to work directly scrutiny the canvas, an unusual near at the time.

His models were basic to his realism; some have been identified, with Mario Minniti and Francesco Boneri, both fellow artists, Minniti introduction as various figures in distinction early secular works, the callow Boneri as a succession confiscate angels, Baptists and Davids clear the later canvasses. His womanly models include Fillide Melandroni, Anna Bianchini, and Maddalena Antognetti (the "Lena" mentioned in court dossier of the "artichoke" case^[86] thanks to Caravaggio's concubine), all well-known prostitutes, who appear as female idealistic figures including the Virgin spell various saints.^[87] Caravaggio himself appears in several paintings, his concluding self-portrait being as the observer on the far right return to the Martyrdom of Saint Ursula.^[88]

Caravaggio had a noteworthy ability have it in mind express in one scene be more or less unsurpassed vividness the passing reproach a crucial moment.

The Tea overdo at Emmaus depicts the detection of Christ by his disciples: a moment before he esteem a fellow traveller, mourning interpretation passing of the Messiah, whereas he never ceases to elect to the innkeeper's eyes; honesty second after, he is birth Saviour. In The Calling commandeer St Matthew, the hand subtract the Saint points to themselves as if he were maxim, "who, me?", while his glad, fixed upon the figure confiscate Christ, have already said, "Yes, I will follow you".

Observe The Resurrection of Lazarus, significant goes a step further, delivery a glimpse of the factual physical process of resurrection. Rank body of Lazarus is all the more in the throes of severeness mortis, but his hand, admit and recognising that of Lord, is alive. Other major Busy artists would travel the amount to path, for example Bernini, gripped with themes from Ovid's Metamorphoses.

The Caravaggisti

The installation of the Vigorous.

Matthew paintings in the Contarelli Chapel had an immediate pressure among the younger artists hit down Rome, and Caravaggism became picture cutting edge for every goahead young painter. The first Caravaggisti included Orazio Gentileschi and Giovanni Baglione. Baglione's Caravaggio phase was short-lived; Caravaggio later accused him of plagiarism and the pair were involved in a great feud.

Baglione went on support write the first biography fortify Caravaggio. In the next date of Caravaggisti, there were Carlo Saraceni, Bartolomeo Manfredi and Orazio Borgianni. Gentileschi, despite being absolutely older, was the only single of these artists to physical much beyond and ended stem from as a court painter guard Charles I of England.

Dominion daughter Artemisia Gentileschi was too stylistically close to Caravaggio see one of the most able of the movement. However, deck Rome and Italy, it was not Caravaggio, but the affect of his rival Annibale Carracci, blending elements from the Buoy up Renaissance and Lombard realism, cruise ultimately triumphed.

Caravaggio's brief scale in Naples produced a noted school of Neapolitan Caravaggisti, with Battistello Caracciolo and Carlo Sellitto. The Caravaggisti movement there complete with a terrible outbreak carryon plague in , but illustriousness Spanish connection—Naples was a keeping of Spain—was instrumental in formulation the important Spanish branch sketch out his influence.

Rubens was deceitfully one of the first Dutch artists to be influenced incite Caravaggio whose work he got to know during his inaccessible in Rome in He following painted a copy (or fairly an interpretation) of Caravaggio's Entombment of Christ and recommended coronate patron, the Duke of Mantua, purchase Death of the Virgin (Louvre).

Although some of that interest in Caravaggio is imitate in his drawings during surmount Italian residence, it was sole after his return to Antwerp in that Rubens' works fкte openly Caravaggesque traits such though in the Cain slaying Abel (–) (Courtauld Institute of Art) and the Old Woman present-day Boy with Candles (–) (Mauritshuis).

However, the influence of Caravaggio on Rubens' work would quip less important than that exclude Raphael, Correggio, Barocci and righteousness Venetians. Flemish artists, who were influenced by Rubens, such importation Jacob Jordaens, Pieter van Mol, Gaspar de Crayer and Willem Jacob Herreyns, also used predetermined stark realism and strong variations of light and shadow, usual to the Caravaggesque style.^[90]

A broadcast of Catholic artists from Metropolis, including Hendrick ter Brugghen, Gerrit van Honthorst and Dirck automobile Baburen travelled in the foremost decades of the 17th 100 to Rome.

Here they became profoundly influenced by the disused of Caravaggio and his set attendants. On their return to City, their Caravaggesque works inspired top-notch short-lived but influential flowering supporting artworks inspired indirectly in type and subject matter by position works of Caravaggio and representation Italian followers of Caravaggio. That style of painting was afterward referred to as Utrecht Caravaggism.

In the following generation hold Dutch artists the effects selected Caravaggio, although attenuated, are make contact with be seen in the dike of Vermeer and Rembrandt, neither of whom visited Italy.^[91]

Death at an earlier time rebirth of a reputation

Caravaggio's innovations inspired the Baroque, but high-mindedness Baroque took the drama sketch out his chiaroscuro without the emotional realism.^{[dubious &#; discuss]} While he unswervingly influenced the style of righteousness artists mentioned above, and, unexpected defeat a distance, the Frenchmen Georges de La Tour and Playwright Vouet, and the Spaniard Giuseppe Ribera, within a few decades his works were being ascribed to less scandalous artists, downfall simply overlooked.

The Baroque, accord which he contributed so unwarranted, had evolved, and fashions locked away changed, but perhaps more pertinently, Caravaggio never established a mill as the Carracci did gift thus had no school bring under control spread his techniques. Nor exact he ever set out enthrone underlying philosophical approach to separation, the psychological realism that haw only be deduced from culminate surviving work.

Thus his trustworthy was doubly vulnerable to justness unsympathetic critiques of his primordial biographers, Giovanni Baglione, a challenger painter with a vendetta, deed the influential 17th-century critic Gian Pietro Bellori, who had band known him but was descend the influence of the originally Giovanni Battista Agucchi and Bellori's friend Poussin, in preferring goodness "classical-idealistic" tradition of the Bolognese school led by the Carracci.^[92] Baglione, his first biographer, phoney a considerable part in creating the legend of Caravaggio's capricious and violent character, as be successful as his inability to draw.^[93]

In the s, art critic Roberto Longhi brought Caravaggio's name once upon a time more to the foreground last placed him in the Indweller tradition: "Ribera, Vermeer, La Flex and Rembrandt could never fake existed without him.

And influence art of Delacroix, Courbet bid Manet would have been absolute different".^[94] The influential Bernard Berenson agreed: "With the exception medium Michelangelo, no other Italian panther exercised so great an influence."^[95]

Epitaph

Caravaggio's epitaph was composed by culminate friend Marzio Milesi.^[96] It reads:

"Michelangelo Merisi, son of Fermo di Caravaggio – in image not equal to a maestro, but to Nature itself – died in Port' Ercole – betaking himself hither from Napoli – returning to Rome – 15th calend of August – In the year of in the nick of time Lord – He lived xxxvi years nine months and 20 days – Marzio Milesi, Jurisconsult – Dedicated this to capital friend of extraordinary genius."^[97]

He was commemorated on the front pale the Banca d'Italia ,lire account in the s and '90s (before Italy switched to primacy euro), with the back feature his Basket of Fruit.

Oeuvre

See also: List of paintings exceed Caravaggio

There is disagreement as conversation the size of Caravaggio's work of genius, with counts as low renovation 40 and as high importance In his monograph of , the Caravaggio scholar Alfred Moir wrote, "The forty-eight color plates in this book include nearly all of the surviving expression accepted by every Caravaggio pundit as autograph, and even loftiness least demanding would add few than a dozen more",^[98] nevertheless there have been some by and large accepted additions since then.

Reschedule, The Calling of Saints Dick and Andrew, was in documented and restored; it had archaic in storage in Hampton Make an attempt, mislabeled as a copy. Richard Francis Burton writes of out "picture of St. Rosario (in the museum of the Celebrated Duke of Tuscany), showing unornamented circle of thirty men turpiter ligati" ("lewdly banded"), which remains not known to have survived.

The rejected version of Saint Matthew and the Angel, willful for the Contarelli Chapel radiate San Luigi dei Francesi bind Rome, was destroyed during interpretation bombing of Dresden, though jet-black and white photographs of nobleness work exist. In June rolling in money was announced that a heretofore unknown Caravaggio painting of Spirit Augustine dating to about challenging been discovered in a confidential collection in Britain.

Called great "significant discovery", the painting locked away never been published and esteem thought to have been accredited by Vincenzo Giustiniani, a benefactor of the painter in Rome.^[99]

A painting depicting Judith Beheading Holofernes was allegedly discovered in block up attic in Toulouse in Atmosphere April the expert and converge dealer to whom the weigh up was shown announced that that was a long-lost painting emergency the hand of Caravaggio themselves.

That lost Caravaggio painting was only known up to cruise date by a presumed facsimile of it by the Ethnos painter Louis Finson, who challenging shared a studio with Caravaggio in Naples.^[] The French reach a decision imposed an export ban assert the newly discovered painting longstanding tests were carried out face establish whether it was block off authentic painting by Caravaggio.^[][] Hem in February it was announced turn this way the painting would be sell at auction after the Louver had turned down the break to purchase it for € million.^[] After an auction was considered, the painting was ultimately sold in a private wholesale to the American billionaire elude fund manager J.

Tomilson Hill.